Kei Emmanuel Duku
In South Sudan, where oil exports dominate the economy, gold mining has emerged as a crucial alternative source of income. The country also boasts of substantial mineral resources such as iron ore, limestone, diamonds, and gold, though these remain largely untapped.
Mining concentrates in three main regions, with significant activities near the vast gold deposits discovered on the border with northern Uganda. In Greater Kapoeta, specifically in places like Ngauro, Namurunyang, and Buno, where small-scale artisanal miners toil in search of gold.
The allure of gold has reshaped livelihoods here, particularly among those affected by frequent cattle raids and unpredictable droughts.
Stories from the Mines
For 20-year-old Lino (not his real name), a young gold dealer at the Namurunyang site, mining has become a way of life. Introduced to the trade by his stepmother after his father’s death, Lino has forgotten formal education to focus on mining.
His stepmother’s advice — to invest his earnings in livestock, essential for marriage in Toposa culture — has guided his path. On good days, Lino extracts between 0.2 and 0.3 grams of gold, earning $35 to $45 (80,000 to 95,000 South Sudanese Pounds).
Despite the risks of robbery and governmental restrictions, Lino sees mining as a more reliable source of income.
“Our only loss here is when you are robbed on the way to town or when the government starts imposing a curfew on gold,” narrates Lino, further stressing that “I am happy that I now have a sizable number of cows for dowry; however, it is still too early to think about marriage.”
Gold dealers in Kapoeta originate from various backgrounds
Josephine Ocean, a young mother, recounted how she entered the gold business after being introduced by a friend while in Torit town. At the gold site, she observes that men primarily dig deep holes and extract gravel underground, while women are responsible for panning the gold. However, unmarried women bear the costs of excavation and panning for themselves.
According to Ocean, the men dig holes as deep as 8 to 10 meters in search of gold, a risky endeavor that has claimed many lives due to tunnel collapses.
Reflecting on the dangers, she emphasizes the precarious nature of their work and the reliance on divine mercy for safety. Despite the risks, she explains that the earnings from gold mining are crucial for feeding their children, stating, “Sometimes, after digging 10 meters deep, you may not find a single gram of gold, and then you have to dig sideways.”
Peter Pitia, a local chief actively involved in the gold trade, highlights that many locals have forsaken farming due to the region’s unpredictable rainfall patterns.
This shift has been driven by the necessity to secure immediate income for household essentials like food and medical expenses. At 39 years old, Pitia, who supports his two wives and seven children, laments that none of his children have been able to attend university, with their livelihood depending entirely on the proceeds from gold mining.
Pitia expresses gratitude that the government does not interfere with their gold trading activities but voices concern about the diminishing gold deposits in the area.
He notes the dwindling availability of gold and the challenges this poses for the community’s future economic stability. Despite these hardships, Pitia acknowledges that only a few individuals continue to engage in agriculture due to the changing climate conditions, which further complicates their economic prospects.
“Gold used to be plenty here, but now it is scarce. I don’t know what we are going to do. Only a few of us cultivate here because of the changing rainfall pattern,” notes Pitia.
Challenges and Risks
Mining sites in Kapoeta expose miners to significant risks, including robbery, gun attacks, domestic violence, and substance abuse. Sadly, child labor is prevalent in these fields, akin to farmland practices, with many children unable to access education due to the absence of nearby schools.
Tragic incidents highlight the dangers miners face. Between January and March 2024, 12 miners lost their lives in separate incidents. In Naknak, part of Greater Kapoeta, seven miners perished after being trapped underground during a rainstorm.
Juma Justine, Executive Director of Kapoeta South, recounts that as the rain began, lacking temporary shelters, the miners sought refuge in the deep holes. Unaware of the surface conditions, “they were submerged when the river flooded from its mountain source, resulting in the deaths of six miners on the spot. Another died after reaching the surface, while one survived,” narrates Juma.
Environmental Impact
Artisanal mining is prevalent throughout Kapoeta, where gold extraction occurs, but mercury is not used as a mining method in this region. However, the environmental impacts of mining are still significant.
In the Namuranyang mine area, extensive clearing of land and vegetation by artisanal miners and illegal mining operations has created vast areas for mining activities.
Unfortunately, many miners abandon pits and trenches without proper reclamation efforts. These abandoned sites degrade the landscape, as unfilled pits make the land unsuitable for farming. Moreover, clearing forests for temporary resting grounds further exacerbates the area’s vulnerability to prolonged drought.
The Singatia River, crucial for water supply in the Namuranyang mine area, suffers from the effects of small-scale mining conducted without adequate safeguards or environmental standards. Miners here are exposed to waterborne diseases and physical risks due to inadequate protective equipment.
During gold panning, miners use polluted water pools, thereby contaminating the Singatia River, which serves as the primary water source for the mining community.
Seasonal rains exacerbate these issues by washing gold debris downstream, contaminating water sources used by both livestock and residents. This environmental degradation not only jeopardizes ecosystem health but also threatens the livelihoods and well-being of the community.
Gold Smuggling and the Actors
According to an investigation by the Enough Project Team titled “The Criminalization of South Sudan’s Gold Sector: Kleptocratic Networks and the Gold Trade in Kapoeta,” the illegal gold business is predominantly controlled by Somali, Ugandan, Kenyan, and some Chinese nationals.
These foreign nationals purchase the gold from artisanal miners and allegedly smuggle it out of the country through porous border points with Uganda or Kenya.
Apart from the foreigners, some government and security officials exploit the Kapoeta airfield to transport gold to Juba, and subsequently, it is rerouted to destinations like the United Arab Emirates and Asian countries via Juba International Airport.
The profits from these smuggling operations are substantial, prompting bribes to customs officials and security personnel at the airport and border crossings, resulting in significant revenue loss for the government.
In 2019, South Sudan reportedly exported gold worth $19.4 million, primarily to the United Arab Emirates, according to data from the Observatory of Economic Complexity. However, this figure contradicts information from the South Sudan Ministry of Mining.
A Somali trader based in Kapoeta Town, involved in the gold business and other merchandise (who preferred anonymity for security reasons), highlights the inherent risks such as confiscation by security forces, robberies, and restricted access to mining areas.
Despite these risks, he notes relatively few restrictions on transporting gold within South Sudan itself and to Kapoeta Town.
He says routes for smuggling include transportation via airfield to Dubai through Juba International Airport, by road to Juba, or using vehicles like Toyota Noah and Probox to Uganda and Kenya. Alternatively, motorcycles (boda-boda) are utilized through the Elegu and Nadapala border posts respectively.
The trader emphasizes the importance of concealment to evade detection, especially at security checkpoints lacking advanced detection equipment. Once past these points, the gold is sold to agents in Nairobi, who then export it to Dubai.
“After selling the gold either in Kenya or Dubai, we restock our shops, so if a miner wants sugar, maize flour, cooking oil, etc., we provide these items in exchange for the gold brought,” narrates the trader.
In Kapoeta, the local government’s Investment Authority was established to purchase gold from artisanal miners, though some local businessmen now exchange gold directly for food items due to government restrictions on open gold trading.
Furthermore, the smuggling of gold to North-West Uganda around Gulu and Arua hub is easy as there are hundreds of unofficial border points along the borders of Uganda and South Sudan. For example, in 2019, it was estimated that 50 to 100 kg of gold daily was smuggled from South Sudan via Arua before it was transported to Kampala, according to the UN Group of Experts report.
The reports further reveal the presence of unlicensed mining companies in Kapoeta authorized by local administrators, although the Ministry of Mining is responsible for issuing mining certificates. According to the UN Group of Experts, this shows a conflict of interest where certain individuals or state authorities benefit from the foreign companies.
Regulatory Framework and Challenges
South Sudan’s mining sector is governed by the Mining Act of 2012, which is currently under review by the Constitutional Amendment Committee and awaiting submission to Parliament by the Minister of Justice. This act aims to regulate the exploration, development, and exploitation of mineral resources in the country, promoting sustainable mining practices, attracting investors, and fostering sectoral development.
Under the Mining Act, license holders are required to conduct environmental impact assessments to prevent pollution and protect the environment. Mining companies are mandated to implement measures that mitigate environmental impacts. However, in Greater Kapoeta, these regulations are often disregarded by stakeholders in the mining sector.
According to Okomos Bosco (pseudonym), a resident of Kapoeta South, there is rampant illegal smuggling of gold from Natartar, Nakapelichor, Kokumai, and Nakeke in Kapoeta by Chinese companies whose premises are heavily guarded. Bosco further describes conflicts between communities and mining companies due to the failure to honor agreements.
These disputes often arise from a lack of compensation for displaced residents and the failure to provide promised social amenities such as roads, hospitals, schools, and clean water. Despite contractual obligations to develop local infrastructure, these commitments have not been fulfilled, while gold continues to be smuggled out of the region daily.
The mining sector in Kapoeta and other parts of the country involves over 30 companies engaged in both legal exploration and illegal mining activities, with more than 70 concessions granted. The area supports over 60,000 miners, predominantly practicing artisanal mining. This method involves digging soil to extract gravel and panning for precious metals at river bases.
Unfortunately, the widespread use of cheap and simple open-cast mining techniques by artisanal miners has led to extensive environmental degradation in Greater Kapoeta. Thorny scrub and open grasslands have been destroyed, further complicating the ecological balance in the region.
Dr. Cosmas Pitia Kujjo, the Undersecretary of the Ministry of Mining in the Republic of South Sudan, highlights several challenges plaguing the country’s gold industry. He attributes its underdevelopment to persistent civil conflict, limited government funding, and inadequate data on gold quality and quantity.
Dr. Pitia notes that the majority of registered and unregistered gold mining entities, including artisanal miners, operate outside legal frameworks. Many miners resist registering the gold they extract with the Ministry of Mining or the Central Bank. This informal mining sector complicates efforts to regulate and manage the trade effectively. Furthermore, he acknowledges that the Ministry suffers from understaffing and lacks sufficient logistical support to patrol South Sudan’s porous borders with neighboring East African countries. This situation facilitates illegal smuggling activities across borders, which are largely controlled by foreign nationals due to the absence of robust regulatory structures.
To address these issues, Dr. Pitia mentions ongoing efforts, including a partnership with the government of South Africa. This collaboration aims to train 50 Petroleum and Mining Police (PMP) to monitor and deter smuggling, initially focusing on Juba Airport.
However, due to financial constraints, deployment across all border points remains limited, with inadequate patrol vehicles. “The government intends to purchase and refine gold from artisanal miners and mining companies before export,” Dr. Pitia explained. This approach aims to formalize the sector and enhance regulatory oversight. However, the current lack of infrastructure hampers effective implementation.
Calls for Action
Joseph Africano Bartel, Undersecretary of the Ministry of Environment and Forestry in South Sudan, revealed that 50% of Equatorial forests, including those in Kapoeta, are under threat from human activities.
He identifies high demand for wood fuel, illegal mining practices, and settlement as major drivers of deforestation in the region.
“About 13 million people rely heavily on 30 megawatts of power, which is insufficient and costly,” Bartel notes.
He pointed out that nearly all urban areas depend on biomass for fuel, exacerbating environmental degradation, particularly in places like Kapoeta where illegal logging and mining are rampant, causing significant harm to the environment. He laments that South Sudan loses 2-3% of its forest cover annually due to these activities.
Bartel stresses the urgent need for comprehensive environmental impact assessments to evaluate and mitigate the damage caused by illegal mining and logging activities.
“The potential of the gold sector to uplift communities’ hinges on addressing its environmental and social costs,” Bartel concludes, urging stringent regulatory enforcement and sustainable practices to protect South Sudan’s natural resources and ensure long-term community benefits from mining activities.
Likewise, Wani Stephen Elias, Program Manager at the African Democracy Resilience Network (ADRN) and an environmental activist, highlights the stagnant state of large-scale mining in post-conflict Sudan since the 1980s, despite the discovery of gold. He emphasizes that many miners are seasonal, migrating between locales based on the availability of mineable resources.
“The water in River Singatia and the surrounding soil has become polluted,” Wani notes, citing the lack of clean water, reduced rainfall, and loss of biodiversity due to extensive land clearing for mining pathways.
He criticizes the low technological efficiency in gold extraction, resulting in wastage. When gold is depleted in one area, miners move on, leading to environmental hazards such as landslides and tunnel collapses that endanger both the environment and miners’ lives.
Wani attributes the prevalence of child labor in mining areas to poor parenting practices, foreseeing future challenges for these children once gold reserves are exhausted. He underscores the dangers faced by children, including landslides, substance abuse, and gender-based violence, exacerbated by neglect and lack of access to education and healthcare services.
He calls on the government and exploration companies across South Sudan to honor agreements with local communities by investing in infrastructure like schools, hospitals, roads, and clean water facilities in mining areas.
This article has been produced with the support of InfoNile.